Encryption

In cryptography, encryption is the process of obscuring information to make it unreadable without special knowledge, sometimes referred to as scrambling. Encryption has been used to protect communications for centuries, but only organizations and individuals with an extraordinary need for secrecy had made use of it. In the mid-1970s, strong encryption emerged from the sole preserve of secretive government agencies into the public domain, and is now used in protecting widely-used systems, such as Internet e-commerce, mobile telephone networks and bank automatic teller machines.

Encryption can be used to ensure secrecy, but other techniques are still needed to make communications secure, particularly to verify the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, a message authentication code (MAC) or digital signatures. Another consideration is protection against traffic analysis.

Encryption or software code obfuscation is also used in software copy protection against reverse engineering, unauthorized application analysis, cracks and software piracy used in different encryption or obfuscating software.
 

Ciphers

In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption and decryption — a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative term is encipherment. In most cases, that procedure is varied depending on a key which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. In non-technical usage, a "cipher" is the same thing as a "code"; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography. In classical cryptography, ciphers were distinguished from codes, which operated by substituting according to a large codebook.

The original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it; it should resemble random gibberish to those not intended to read it.

The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key or, in traditional NSA parlance, a cryptovariable. The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext.

Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways:

• By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers).
• By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key algorithms). If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the encyphering key is different from, but closely related to, the decyphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality. The Feistel cipher uses a combination of substitution and transposition techniques. Most (block ciphers) algorithms are based on this structure.

Etymology of "cipher"

"Cipher" is alternatively spelled "cypher"; similarly "ciphertext" and "cyphertext", and so forth. It also got into Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin as cifra.

The word "cipher" in former times meant "zero". It came from the Arabic word şifr صِفْر "nothing", "zero" (from the verb şafira = "it was empty"), which also became (via Italian) the word "zero". The zero (written as "0") was the crucial innovation in positional Arabic versus Roman numerals. The word "cipher" was used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are two theories about how the word "cipher" may have come to mean encoding:
 

• Encoding often involved numbers.
• Conservative Catholic opponents of the Arabic ("heathen") numerals equated it with any "dark secret".

Another Explanation

The Roman system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero or (empty space). The concept of zero which we all think of as natural was just the opposite in medieval Europe. In Sanskrit, the zero was called "sunya" or "empty". The Arabs translated the Indian into the Arabic equivalent "sifr". Europeans adopted the concept and symbol but not name, but transformed it into Latin equivalent "cifra" and "cephirium" {Fibonnaci did this}. The Italian equivalent of these words "zefiro", "zefro" and "zevero". The latter was shortened to "Zero". The French formed the word "chiffre" and conceded the Italian word "zero". The English used "zero" and "Cipher" from the word ciphering as a means of computing. The Germans used the words "ziffer" and "chiffer". The concept of zero or sifr or cipher was so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say "talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher". Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or simply encryption. Dr. Al-Kadi (ref-3) concluded that the Arabic word sifr, for the digit zero, developed into the European technical term for encryption.

Ciphers versus codes

In non-technical usage, a "(secret) code" is the same thing as a cipher. Within technical discussions, however, they are distinguished into two concepts. Codes work at the level of meaning — that is, words or phrases are converted into something else and this chunking generally shortens the message. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using superencipherment to increase the security.

Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: "encoding, codetext, decoding" and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique.

Types of cipher

There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the history of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys.

Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers. They include simple substitution ciphers and transposition ciphers. For example GOOD DOG can be encrypted as PLLX XLP where L substitutes for O, P for G, and X for D in the message. Transposition of the letters GOOD DOG can result in DGOGDOO. These simple ciphers are easy to crack, even without plaintext-ciphertext pairs.

Simple ciphers were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers which changed the substitution alphabet for every letter. For example GOOD DOG can be encrypted as PLSX TWF where L, S, and W substitute for O. With even a small amount of known plaintext, polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack.

During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do encryption and decryption using a combination of transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and "additive" substitution. In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic substitution, while plug boards provided transposition. Keys were easily changed by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires. Although these encryption methods were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these encryption methods.

Modern encryption methods can be divided into symmetric key algorithms (Private-key cryptography) and asymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography). In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an asymmetric key algorithm (e.g., RSA), there are two separate keys: a public key is published and enables any sender to perform encryption, while a private key is kept secret by the receiver and enables only him to perform decryption.

Symmetric key ciphers can be distinguished into two types, depending on whether they work on blocks of symbols of fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers).

Key size and vulnerability

In a pure mathematical attack (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cypher), three factors above all, count:

Mathematical advances, that allow new attacks or weaknesses to be discovered and exploited.
Computational power available, i.e. the computer power which can be brought to bear on the problem.
Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message. As the key size increases, so does the complexity of brute search to the point where it becomes infeasible to crack encryption directly.
Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly.

An example of this process can be found at keylength.com which uses multiple reports to suggest that a symmetric cypher with 128 bits, an asymmetric cypher with 3072 bit keys, and an elliptic curve cypher with 512 bits, all have similar difficulty at present.

Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used only once: one-time pad.

Reference: Wikipedia.org